Adoption and profitability of BARI released garlic varieties in Bangladesh: a farm level study

: Garlic, a vital spice crop in Bangladesh, holds a prominent position as the leading producer among all spice crops. This study was conducted in three garlic growing districts, namely Rajbari, Natore


Introduction
Garlic, often referred to as the "stinking rose," holds a special place among the array of spices cultivated in Bangladesh (Upadhyay, 2017).Renowned for its distinctive flavor, diverse culinary and medicinal uses, garlic has emerged as a cornerstone of the country's spice production, consistently ranking at the summit in terms of output (Afrad and Akter, 2020;Akhter et al., 2016;Ambiara et al., 2016;Islam and Monjil, 2016;Khan et al., 2017;Paswan et al., 2021;Rana et al., 2021;Sabur and Molla, 1993).Yet, despite its prominence, the local production of this essential spice falls short of meeting the burgeoning domestic demand, compelling the nation to turn to international markets for imports (Begum and D'Haese, 2010;Kotler and Gertner, 2002).The year 2015-16 serves as a poignant reminder of this dependency, as Bangladesh imported a staggering 38,219 metric tons of garlic, amounting to a substantial sum of BDT 373.3 million (BBS, 2016).This extensive reliance on garlic imports underscores the pressing urgency and vast scope for augmenting domestic production (Hasan and Khalequzzaman, 2015;Moyazzem and Abdulla, 2015;Rana et al., 2021).The recent surge in garlic prices provides further testament to the importance of bolstering local garlic cultivation (Hasan and Khalequzzaman, 2015;Hasan and Khalequzzaman, 2017).With escalating market prices serving as a wake-up call, it is imperative to explore strategies for reducing the nation's dependence on external sources (Hasan and Khalequzzaman, 2015;Paczka et al., 2021;Rana et al., 2021).This challenge presents us with two primary avenues for increasing garlic production within Bangladesh including one involves expanding the cultivated area dedicated to garlic, while the other revolves around enhancing the productivity of existing cultivation (Haque et al., 2013).However, within the context of a land-scarce nation like Bangladesh, the first option is encountering significant constraints (Saha et al., 2020;Vaumik et al., 2017).The ever-increasing demand for land in the non-farm sectors, ranging from housing to infrastructure development, is encroaching upon agricultural land at an alarming rate (Haque et al., 2013).It is a well-documented fact that approximately 1% of the country's agricultural land is diverted towards non-agricultural purposes on an annual basis (Quasem, 2011).On the other hand, the agricultural sector in Bangladesh operates at or near its land frontier, leaving little room for the expansion of production through the introduction of new agricultural land (Pingali, 2012;Rahman, 2017).Compounding this challenge is the disconcerting fact that the average yield of garlic in Bangladesh remains strikingly low, hovering at a meager 6.28 tons per hectare, starkly contrasting with the global average (BBS, 2016).Consequently, an alarmingly low yield in garlic cultivation underscores the pressing need for a fundamental shift in our approach towards garlic farming (Haque et al., 2013;Jiku et al., 2020;Saha et al., 2020).It is paramount that we turn our attention towards enhancing the productivity of garlic cultivation by replacing traditional garlic varieties with improved alternatives.Remarkably, national agricultural research organizations in Bangladesh have dedicated considerable effort and resources to the development of high-yielding, improved garlic varieties (Sunny et al., 2018).These improved varieties are not only characterized by their potential for higher yields but also boast attributes that make them more resilient and sustainable in various agro-ecological contexts (Nayak et al., 2022;Pretty and Bharucha, 2014;Rebouh et al., 2023;van Bueren et al., 2018).However, despite these remarkable advancements in garlic breeding and selection, traditional garlic varieties continue to dominate the fields of local farmers (Haque et al., 2013;Parreño et al., 2023;Shemesh-Mayer and Kamenetsky-Goldstein, 2021).This prevailing paradox raises important questions regarding the factors influencing farmers' choices and the underlying barriers to the widespread adoption of improved garlic varieties.Garlic, as a high-value cash crop, harbors the potential to significantly boost the income of farmers due to its inherent capacity for substantial yield and market demand (Ansary et al., 2020).Yet, despite the immense promise and clear advantages of adopting improved garlic varieties, a substantial number of farmers across the country remain hesitant to embrace these advancements.As a result, the full potential of garlic cultivation in Bangladesh remains unrealized (Haque et al., 2013).In light of the outlined challenges and opportunities, this study is designed to assess the adoption and profitability status of BARI released garlic varieties in the fields of farmers, and to delve into the factors that influence the adoption and non-adoption of BARI released varieties and the major constraints experienced by farmers in the cultivation of garlic varieties.This study is underpinned by a commitment to generating insights that can serve as a catalyst for transformative change within the garlic farming landscape of Bangladesh.The findings have the potential to guide policymakers, agricultural researchers, and farmers in optimizing garlic production, increasing economic returns, and ultimately enhancing food security within the nation.The study is positioned to break down the barriers hindering the widespread adoption of improved garlic varieties, unlocking the full potential of this high-value crop and ushering in a new era of prosperity for garlic growers across the country.

Ethical approval
Ethical approval was not required for this study.

Sampling procedure and sample size
The research was undertaken in three distinct districts of Bangladesh, Rajbari, Natore, and Dinajpur (Figure 1).Within each of these districts, a careful selection process was employed.Specifically, one upazila (sub-district) was thoughtfully chosen from each district, and from each upazila, two blocks were purposively selected in close collaboration with Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) personnel and garlic experts.Subsequently, the study's sample included a total of 300 farmers, with 100 farmers randomly drawn from each of the three districts (Table 1).Data collection was carried out using a pre-tested interview schedule during the period of January to March 2019.

Data collection
Primary data, encompassing aspects such as farm households, infrastructure, land usage, cropping patterns, adoption rates, input utilization, farm production, grading, packaging, transportation, marketing costs, and cultivation challenges, were gathered through face-to-face interviews with the selected respondents.The data pertaining to the 2018-2019 period were acquired using a survey approach, utilizing a meticulously designed, comprehensive, and pre-tested interview schedule.

Statistical analytical
The gathered data underwent a process of editing, tabulation, and analysis in order to meet the study's objectives.Descriptive statistics, employing various statistical tools such as means, percentages, and ratios, were employed to present the study's findings.The profitability of garlic production was assessed through the examination of gross returns, gross margins, and the benefit-cost ratio.Additionally, the total cost estimation incorporated the consideration of opportunity costs associated with family-provided labor.Land use costs were computed based on the annual lease value of the land (Haque et al., 2013;Islam et al., 2016;Meena et al., 2013).

Profitability analysis
The profitability of garlic cultivation at the farm level was determined using the subsequent equations for cost analysis, TVC ij = VC ij + IOC ij TC ij = TVC ij + TFC ij Where, TC ij = Total cost of j th crop for ith farmer (Tk/ha) TVC ij = Total variable cost of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/ha).TFC ij = Total fixed cost of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/ha) VC ij = Variable cost of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/ha) IOC ij = Interest of operating capital of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/ha) X ij = Quantity of inputs of j th crop for i th farmer (kg) P ij = Price of inputs of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/kg) J = Number of crops i = Number of farmers (1.2.3 ……..n) Equations for profitability analysis, Gross return = Gr ij = Y ij P ij Net return = Gr ij -TC ij Gross margin = Gr ij -VC ij Where, Gr ij = Gross return of j th crop for i th farmer (Tk/ha) P ij = Price (Tk/ha) of jth crops received by ith farmer Y ij = Quantity (kg/ha) produced of j th crop for i th farmer.

Factors affecting adoption of garlic technology
To establish the association between garlic adoption and socio-economic factors, we employed the following empirical probit model.The adoption of garlic served as the dependent variable in this model (Akkaya Aslan et al., 2007;Khan et al., 2022;Sunny et al., 2018) In this study, the literacy status of the participating farmers was categorized into five distinct groups based on their educational levels including illiterate, primary education, secondary education, higher secondary education, and degree and above.It is noteworthy that 15.67% of the adopters and 20% of the non-adopters had not received any formal education.The majority of adopters, comprising 41.67%, possessed a secondary level education, while 31% had completed their primary education.A smaller percentage, 8.67%, had received a higher secondary education, and 4% held a degree or higher educational qualifications.In contrast, among the non-adopters, 35% had completed their primary education, with an additional 29% having attained a secondary level education.Furthermore, 10% of non-adopters had a higher secondary education, and 4% possessed a degree or higher level of education (Table 2).These findings emphasize the significant role of education in shaping the adoption patterns among farmers and highlight the potential benefits of enhancing educational opportunities within the agricultural sector (Johnson et al., 2023;Rizzo et al., 2023;Ruzzante et al., 2021).Education among farmers is widely anticipated to have a positive impact on agricultural output (Paltasingh and Goyari, 2018;Villar et al., 2023).This influence can stem from both formal and informal educational backgrounds, as it plays a crucial role in driving the adoption of new technologies and optimizing the utilization of farm resources to maximize profitability (Bukchin and Kerret, 2020;Martínez-Peláez et al., 2023;Udimal et al., 2017).The significance of education is underscored by the fact that it is an essential factor in agricultural development.

Land holding
It becomes evident that adopters and non-adopters had average farm sizes of 1.721 hectares and 1.590 hectares, respectively.Notably, farmers in the Natore district, known for their adoption of new technologies, exhibited larger land holdings compared to their counterparts in Dinajpur and Rajbari districts (Table 3).This variation in farm size can have implications for the adoption and implementation of innovative agricultural practices (Hu et al., 2022;Rizzo et al., 2023;Sarker et al., 2021).The extent of land under the control of farmers plays a pivotal role in determining their agricultural activities.Farm size is quantified as the total land area managed by the farmers, encompassing the land they own, the land they lease from others, and subtracting any land they rent out to others (Dhanaraju et al., 2022;Hu et al., 2022).

Influencing persons in variety adoption
In the initial phase of adopting BARI garlic varieties, various individuals and sources played a significant role in influencing farmers' decisions.The primary influencers included family members, with the highest influence noted at 42%.Neighboring farmers also exerted substantial influence, with 35% of farmers being influenced by them.Sub-assistant Agricultural Officers (SAAOs) were another influential group, with 25% of farmers receiving guidance from them.Agriculture Officers (AOs) had the least influence in this context, with only 42% of farmers citing them as influential sources.Conversely, the influence of members of Integrated Pest Management/Integrated Crop Management (IPM/ICM) clubs was found to be minimal, with 73% of farmers reporting little to no influence from this group.On the other hand, the most significant influence was attributed to the scientists of the On-Farm Research Division, with 93% of farmers acknowledging their role in the adoption process (Table 4).A number of analogous studies have proposed that the factors influencing the adaptation of new hybrid crop varieties in Bangladesh could stem from a variety of sources (Azad and Rahman, 2017;Mottaleb et al., 2015;Sarkar et al., 2022).

Cropping pattern
Crop selection and planting schemes exhibit variations based on a variety of factors, including the type of land, the category of the farmer (marginal, small, medium, or large), and the Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ).These differences are primarily driven by climatic conditions, soil characteristics, and the preferences of farmers in crop production.Among the identified cropping patterns, some of the major ones include Garlic-Til-T.aman(19%), Garlic-Vegetable-Vegetable (18%), Garlic-Fellow-T.aman(15%), Garlic-Jute-Fellow (13%), and Garlicmaize-T.aman (12%) (Table 5).In essence, cropping patterns are not uniform and are influenced by a combination of environmental factors, landholding size, and individual farmer preferences (Shukla et al., 2019).These patterns reflect the adaptability of agricultural practices to specific conditions, highlighting the need for diversified approaches to crop cultivation in different contexts (Chen et al., 2018;Dhanaraju et al., 2022;Meuwissen et al., 2019).

Reasons for choosing BARI garlic varieties
The adoption of BARI garlic varieties by farmers in the study areas can be attributed to several appealing characteristics of these varieties.These attributes include their potential for higher yields, strong profitability, robust demand in the market, ready availability of seeds, and reduced vulnerability to insect-pest attacks.Notably, in Dinajpur and Natore, a significant number of respondents (6 from each district) cited the reduced susceptibility to insect-pests as a key reason for their preference for BARI garlic.Additionally, BARI garlic varieties gained popularity among farmers due to their shorter cultivation duration, a factor emphasized by 7 respondents in every district.Interestingly, farmers in Rajbari, in contrast to other districts, highlighted the high heat tolerance of BARI garlic varieties as a key factor in their adoption, with 8 respondents endorsing this attribute (Table 6).In essence, the appeal of BARI garlic varieties lies in their diverse positive qualities, which cater to the specific needs and preferences of farmers in different regions, ranging from insect-pest resistance to adaptability to local climatic conditions (Rahman et al., 2020).

Level of extension contact
When farmers seek information or guidance on technology dissemination and crop-related matters, their initial point of contact is often the Sub-assistant Agricultural Officer (SAAO) of the DAE.Moreover, farmers actively acquire current and relevant knowledge from a variety of sources.These sources include interactions with neighboring farmers, participation in agricultural fairs, visits to demonstration plots, trips to research organizations, exposure to information through television, radio, newspapers, and access to agricultural booklets and leaflets.Notably, approximately 49% of the farmers made contact with extension personnel for information and assistance regarding garlic cultivation, a figure significantly higher than that of non-adopters (Table 7).A relatively higher percentage of adopters had engaged with mass media, such as radio, television, and newspapers, compared to non-adopters in the study areas (Colussi et al., 2022;Gao et al., 2020;Khan et al., 2017;Memon et al., 2014).Extension agents and mass media play a crucial role in disseminating knowledge and information related to garlic cultivation and agricultural technologies (Chekol et al., 2023;Memon et al., 2014;Sunny et al., 2018).These sources serve as vital channels for farmers to stay informed, enhance their practices, and make informed decisions in the agricultural domain.The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) serves as the primary government agency in Bangladesh responsible for conveying crop-related agricultural innovations from research organizations to the fields of farmers (Ahsan et al., 2023;Rahman et al., 2020).

Adoption of BARI garlic varieties
In the study areas, farmers exhibit a diverse pattern in their cultivation choices, encompassing a range of varieties, including BARI rosun-1, BARI rosun-2, local varieties, and exotic alternatives such as Italy, Patna, and Barma.Notably, a substantial percentage of farmers, amounting to 45%, opted to cultivate BARI rosun-2 in their fields.This choice was primarily driven by the variety's higher yield and its resistance to diseases and pests.Meanwhile, an average of 14.67% of farmers across all areas adopted BARI rosun-1, which is considered the pioneering variety released from the Spices Research Centre at BARI.However, the newly developed varieties, BARI rosun-3 and BARI rosun-4, failed to find adoption in farmers' fields.Farmers expressed a lack of awareness about these two varieties, and dissemination activities for these particular varieties were conspicuously absent in farmers' fields (Table 8).Alongside these choices, a considerable number of farmers also engaged in the cultivation of local varieties, with an average of 24% of farmers dedicating their fields to some exotic varieties.This pattern of variety selection underscores the diverse and dynamic nature of farmers' preferences, driven by factors such as yield potential, disease resistance, and local knowledge.The characteristics of crop varieties play a pivotal role in shaping farmers' adoption decisions.When these characteristics align with the needs and interests of farmers, the likelihood of adoption increases (Anik and Salam, 2015;Dhivya and Karthikeyan, 2019).

Adoption of garlic management technologies
Only a relatively small fraction, constituting 17% of farmers, adhered to the prescribed number of ploughing operations for land preparation.Conversely, a significant majority, averaging 60% of farmers, opted for a seed sowing rate above the recommended levels.Nevertheless, most of these farmers adhered to the recommended timing for sowing, which falls within the last week of October to the first week of November.With regard to planting density, it is observed that 18% of farmers maintained the recommended distance of 10 cm between cloves.However, 52% of farmers chose to plant cloves closer together than recommended, while 28% spaced them farther apart.In terms of irrigation practices, approximately half (50%) of the farmers consistently irrigated their fields as recommended.Additionally, the highest percentage of farmers across all areas, amounting to 75%, followed the prescribed frequency of weeding (2-3 times), contributing to effective weed management.Furthermore, 65% of farmers employed pesticides in their fields to control pests and diseases (Table 9).BARI has put forth a set of improved agricultural practices encompassing various aspects such as tillage operations, seed selection, fertilizer application, weed management, irrigation, and pest control (Alam and Khan, 2017;Tahat et al., 2020;Talaviya et al., 2020).However, the adoption of these recommended practices among farmers in the study areas exhibits some notable variations.The variations in the adoption of these recommended practices underscore the complexities of farming decisions, influenced by factors such as local conditions, traditional practices, and individual farmer preferences (Rahman et al., 2020).While some practices are readily adopted, others face challenges in achieving widespread acceptance among the farming community.The prescribed fertilizer doses vary depending on the location and time period, reflecting the specific agricultural requirements of each area.However, farmers frequently deviate from these recommendations when it comes to the application of manure and fertilizers (Islam et al., 2022a).The adoption of recommended manure doses in various locations was notably low, with a majority of farmers opting to apply quantities below the prescribed levels (Mou et al., 2019;Sunny et al., 2022).On the other hand, the application of urea exceeded the recommended doses across all areas.In the case of Triple Super Phosphate (TSP), the adoption status was moderate, with a majority of farmers adhering to the recommended doses.In contrast, nearly all the respondent farmers applied Muriate of Potash (MoP) and gypsum in quantities below the recommended levels, indicating a shortfall in the adoption of these practices.Consequently, the utilization of manure and fertilizers, overall, was characterized by low levels of adoption, as the recommended doses were not consistently followed (Table 10).This discrepancy in the application of fertilizers and manure suggests that while some recommendations are met, others face challenges in garnering widespread acceptance among farmers (Islam et al., 2022b;Kurniawati et al., 2023).Factors such as cost considerations, local soil conditions, and existing agricultural practices may influence these deviations from the recommended doses.The adoption of BARI garlic varieties at the farm level is subject to influence from various socio-economic factors.These factors include age, education, family labor, experience, training, farm size, the influence of Subassistant Agricultural Officers (SAAO), and extension contacts.The coefficients associated with several of these factors, namely farmer's education, training, farm size, availability of suitable land, availability of quality saplings, influence of SAAO, and extension contact, all demonstrated a positive and statistically significant impact on the adoption of BARI garlic varieties in the study areas (Islam et al., 2019).Further analysis through marginal effects reveals that an increase of 100% in these factors results in an increased probability of adopting BARI garlic varieties by 4%, 12.42%, 23.89%, 5.32%, 1.5%, 8.6%, 9.6%, and 1.2%, respectively.In essence, these findings indicate that the socio-economic factors mentioned, when enhanced or improved, can significantly contribute to a higher likelihood of farmers adopting BARI garlic varieties, underlining the importance of these variables in influencing adoption behavior (Tables 11 and 12).

Input utilization
The utilization of various inputs plays a crucial role in determining the overall cost of garlic cultivation.Garlic farmers employ a range of inputs, including human labor, machinery, seeds, manure, fertilizers, irrigation, and plant protection measures, to manage their fields effectively (Durán-Lara et al., 2020).The application of fertilizers is particularly critical for achieving a bountiful yield, with the required doses varying depending on the garlic variety and the initial soil fertility conditions (Assefa et al., 2015;Jiku et al., 2020;Kakar et al., 2002).In terms of manure application, farmers, on average, utilized 3554 kg per hectare.Human labor played a pivotal role throughout the garlic cultivation process, encompassing activities such as land development, seed sowing, the application of manure and fertilizers, spraying, weeding, irrigation, and harvesting.On average, garlic cultivation necessitated 252 man-days of human labor per hectare, with 40% of this labor being supplied by the farmer's own family, while 60% was hired labor.The application of fertilizers per hectare involved significant quantities, including 382 kg of urea, 224 kg of Muriate of Potash (MoP), 262 kg of Triple Super Phosphate (TSP), 192 kg of Di-ammonium Phosphate (DAP), 64 kg of gypsum, 56 kg of magnesium, 23 kg of boron, and 15 kg of zinc (Islam et al., 2020).On average, irrigation was carried out four times during the garlic cultivation process.While farmers implemented various insecticides and pesticides in their fields for pest control, it was observed that they did not adhere to the recommended doses due to a knowledge gap.This discrepancy underscores the need for enhanced knowledge dissemination and training in integrated pest management to improve pest control practices and optimize input utilization in garlic cultivation (Table 13).

Cost and return of garlic production
Planting materials, land preparation, input cost (FYM, fertilizers, plant growth regulators, plant protection chemicals etc.), labour cost, power cost, harvesting, packing and transportation charges were the main cost components for garlic cultivation (Islam et al., 2021).Rental value of land was treated as fixed cost and interest on operating capital was also considered for the estimation of garlic cultivation cost.On average farmers spend Tk. 6300/ha for land preparation by using power tiller/tractor.The highest manures cost was observed Tk. 2417/ha at Dinajpur followed by Rajbari (Tk.1978/ha), and Natore (Tk.935/ha).Per hectare average seed cost was Tk. 35980 which was the highest in Rajbari (Tk.) and lowest in Natore (Tk 33600).Among variable costs human labour cost was the highest in all study areas.The highest human labour cost was observed (Tk.112000/ha) at Rajbari and lowest (Tk.64750/ha) in Natore (Islam et al., 2021).The overall rental value of land was Tk. 12000/ha.For four months.The interest on fixed cost and interest on operating cost was calculated @ of 8% basis.Among three locations the highest total cost was found Tk. 242823/ha at Rajbari and lowest in Natore Tk. 220768/ha (Table 14).

Profitability of garlic cultivation
The cost components associated with garlic cultivation were diverse and encompassed various aspects of the agricultural process (Islam et al., 2021).These cost components included expenses related to planting materials, land preparation, input costs (covering farmyard manure, fertilizers, plant growth regulators, and plant protection chemicals), labor costs, power costs, harvesting, packing, and transportation charges.Additionally, the cost estimation for garlic cultivation considered the rental value of land as a fixed cost, and it factored in the interest on operating capital.In terms of specific costs, the average expenditure on land preparation stood at Tk. 6300 per hectare, utilizing power tillers or tractors.Manure costs exhibited variations across the study areas, with the highest observed in Dinajpur at Tk. 2417 per hectare, followed by Rajbari at Tk. 1978 per hectare, and Natore at Tk. 935 per hectare.For seed expenses, the per-hectare average amounted to Tk. 35980, with the highest cost noted in Rajbari and the lowest in Natore.Among the variable costs, labor costs were the most substantial across all study areas.In particular, Rajbari incurred the highest human labor cost at Tk. 112000 per hectare, while Natore had the lowest at Tk. 64750 per hectare.The overall rental value of land was estimated at Tk. 12000 per hectare for a four-month period.To calculate the cost more comprehensively, both the interest on fixed costs and the interest on operating costs were considered, with an 8% interest rate applied.Comparing the total costs among the three locations, it was found that Rajbari had the highest total cost, amounting to Tk. 242823 per hectare, while Natore had the lowest total cost at Tk. 220768 per hectare.These findings provide a comprehensive overview of the cost dynamics involved in garlic cultivation, emphasizing the variations in cost components and their impact on the overall cost of production in different locations (Table 15).

Problems and constraints to garlic cultivation
While garlic cultivation offers the promise of profitability, farmers in the study areas faced a spectrum of challenges and constraints in the production process.These constraints were systematically ranked based on the frequencies of responses (Islam et al., 2018).The findings underscored that a significant proportion, a notable 84% of farmers, regarded the low market price of garlic during the peak season as their primary challenge.This problem was further exacerbated by the considerable annual fluctuations in garlic prices, resulting in substantial losses for farmers.Farmers attributed the decline in market prices to the substantial influx of imported garlic into the local market.Furthermore, approximately 83.5% of farmers pointed out that the improved garlic varieties developed by BARI were not readily available in their local markets (Table 16).Moreover, 58% of farmers expressed that other crops were more financially rewarding than garlic cultivation, leading to a decline in the cultivation of garlic.Unfavorable weather conditions, limited access to technical knowledge, a lack of institutional loans, and a dearth of guidance and encouragement from local administrative bodies were also cited as constraints to garlic production in Bangladesh (Fakir et al., 2021;Hoque et al., 2022).These constraints collectively highlight the multifaceted challenges faced by garlic farmers, encompassing market-related issues, competition from other crops, and a range of structural and knowledge-related challenges.Addressing these constraints is critical to sustaining and enhancing the profitability of garlic cultivation in the region.